İSKENDER KARAKAYA’NIN ULUSLARARASI İLİŞKİLER ANALİZLERİ

Terrorism and Counterterrorism Measures taken by Turkey after 11 September 2001

After 11 September 2001, the world began to focus more attention on terrorism. At that day, terrorism became the most important issue for “security of states”. The purpose of this article is to focus on terrorism and counterterrorism activities in Turkey.

In Turkey, the terrorist organizations are classified into four groups: a)left-wing groups (DHKP-C, Marxist-Leninist Communist Party (MLKP), Turkish Communist Party/Marxist-Leninist Partisan-(TKP-ML(TIKKO)), b) right-wing group(Hezbollah), c) separatist groups(PKK) and d) Al-Qaeda connected terrorist groups.

As indicated in “Europe Union Terrorist List May 2006”, there have been three active major terrorist groups in Turkey. Their names are Great Eastern Islamic Riders (IBDA-C, İslami Büyükdoğu Akıncılar Cephesi), Kurdistan Worker’s Party (PKK, Kürdistan İşçi Partisi) and Revolutionary People’s Liberation-Front (Devrimci Halk Kurtuluş Partisi).

In this article, it will be discussed these terrorist groups structures. There are main eight questions to answer. They will be answered towards questions and they will also be identified these terrorist groups features. In addition to answering questions, it will be given some statistics, numbers and sources.

A) What terrorist groups have you been active in your country? Who are/were the members of these groups?

As above mentioned, there are three major terrorist groups in Turkey. They are PKK, IBDA-C and DHKP-C. They are also the most known terrorist groups among the people. Now, they will be given information about all of them and singly.

PKK has founded 1970s. PKK’s operational period has started since 1978. Its members are some complicated for thirty-eight years. PKK has been supported fairly among the Kurdish Population in Turkey. As indicated in statistics about PKK members profile shows us that 54% of the members are aged 14 to 25, 34% 26 to 37 and 12% 38 to 58. University graduates make up 11 % of the members, high school graduates 16 %, secondary school graduates 13 %, primary school graduates 39%, literate non-graduates 12% and illiterates 9%.

IBDA-C has founded 1970. It has gone to the violence in 1990s by its leader Salih Mirzabeyoğlu. The precise number of the IBDA-C’s members is unknown yet. However, reliable sources estimate its membership to be around 100 cadres.

As indicated in statistics about IBDA-C, 2,5 % of the members are aged 10 to 14, 72,5 % 15 to 24, 17 % 25 to 29, 6 % 30 to 34 and 2 % 35 to 64. University graduates make up 22,5 % of the members, high school graduates 40 %, secondary school graduates 14 %, primary school graduates 19 %, literate non-graduates % 2,5 and illiterates 1,5%.

DHKP-C is Marxist and Leninist Party in the Turkey. There are many members in Turkey and Europe. It uses guerilla tactics of Cuba’s Fidel Castro. According to official report, 65 % of the members are aged 14 to 25, 16,8 % are 25 to 30 and 17,5 % are older than 30. University graduates make up 20,4 % of the members, high school graduates 33,5 %, secondary school graduates 14 %, primary school graduates 29,9 % and illiterates 1,9 %.

B) What goals have the respective terrorist groups tried to achieve? Have they changed over the time? Why?

PKK’s main goals have been to create independent and socialist Kurdish State in Kurdistan; Kurdistan means that, a geographical region that comprises parts of southeastern Turkey, northeastern Iraq, northeastern Syria and northwestern Iran, where the Kurdish population is the majority. After 11 September 2001, PKK has changed its strategy. After the capture of Abdullah Öcalan (the leader of PKK), PKK’s tactic “conventional fighting” move to “improvised explosive devices” rather than direct confrontation.

Following to capture of Öcalan, (1999 – ) the organization announced “peace initiative” and used “cultural and human rights idiom”. The organizations hard-line militant group took control and renounced the self-imposed ceasefire with the turn of 2004.

IBDA-C’s main goal is to create a “Sunni Islamic Federate State in Middle East” and re-establish the Caliphate. They are especially enemy to Shia, Alevi, Christian and Jewish interests. IBDA-C wishes to destroy Turkey’s secular and constitutional system and replace it with religious state, first in Turkey and then throughout the world. Necip Fazıl Kısakürek was a great poet and thinker who lived in Turkey, is a source of thought of IBDA-C doctrine with his “pure Islamic values” idea. Necip Fazıl Kısakürek was seen as the pioneer of “ideal Islamic society” by the founders of IBDA-C.

DHKP-C adopts a Marxist and Leninist ideology and holds anti-US and anti-NATO positions. They think that Turkish government is under the control of Western imperialism and seeks to destroy and escape from it. The current agenda of the DHKP-C(after 11 September 2001) have focused on USA occupation in Iraq, and the abolition of one – to three man prison cells, called F-Types. The prisons are part of an effort by the Turkish authorities to reduce the problems caused by holding a large number prisoner convicted of terrorism or organized crime in dormitory style prisons.

C) How much popular support have the terrorist groups enjoyed? Has it fluctuated over time? What domestic political socio-economic and other factors appear to be/had been conducive to the recruitment by the terrorist group?

PKK has a great support among the Kurdish People in Turkey. Its ideology claims to generate equality of gender. The organization increased its number of members through the recruitment of women from different social structures and environments, such as women from families that migrated to several European countries after 1960 as guest workers.

The organization used the children as a military force within its army. When asked why the children stayed in the organization, two thirds stated that they were afraid of being caught as reprisals are not just limited to physical harm towards the militant; their families would be at risk as well. Five percent said that it was from fear of punishment by the Republic of Turkey.

PKK has had party groups such as HEP/HADEP/DEHAP/DTP. On the other hand, PKK perceived Turkish society as one that deformed by capitalism and imperialism. It is based on both political and socio-economic factors. The PKK unleashed its aggression on enemies spanning all classes (farmers, business, etc.) and those that it considered puppets of the state. There are poor life conditions in Kurdish Area in southeastern Turkey.

IBDA-C is proving support from non-secular environments (especially who supports Islamic state approach) who are against the constitutional and secular state system of Turkey. According to IBDA-C thinkers, Turkish regime is collaborating with West. After 11 September 2001, there are many domestic socio-politics factors to recruit by the terrorist group. One of them, IBDA-C identifies itself as a protecting Islam (like Al-Qaida in international arena). So, the organization also produces propagandist literature put out in bookstores and on the internet, which has the potential to attract new members, including those from other countries. IBDA-C is attacking to especially churches, charities, minority-affiliated targets, TV transmitters, newspapers, pro-secular journalists, Ataturk statues, taverns, banks, clubs, and tobacco shops, tradesmen to intimidate the civil people and to find finance for the organization.

. IBDA-C had claimed responsibility for the dual synagogue bombing in Istanbul on November 15, 2003, which killed 24 and injured 255, as well as subsequent attack on the HSBC Bank and British Consulate on 20 November 2003. But there was also claim about joint bombing attack with Al-Qaida network.

DHKP-C is providing support among the people both who has a Marxist ideology and who against USA and West policies. In 1994, the organization was separated two parts. The main group led by Dursun Karataş and named DHKP-C, after that time, DHKP-C has been changed up to now in its actions. During the 1990s years, DHKP-C attacked towards U.S. military and diplomatic personnel and facilities. In 1996, the group assassinated Özdemir Sabancı, o prominent Turkish businessman and two others. Since 2001, the group had started to use suicide bombings. In addition, the group has deployed improvised explosive device against the Turkish police and military targets

D) How have the terrorist groups financed their operations and activities?

PKK has a big budget as estimated nearly 500 million Euros. PKK has been collecting money from its members such as private donations, both individuals and organizations contributions, Kurdish businessmen’s aids from southeastern Turkey, through the sale of various publications etc.

Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) also has been financing its separatist movement by extorting narcotics traffickers and engaging in the trade themselves. French law enforcement estimates that the PKK smuggles 80% of the heroin in Paris the British Foreign Office has made a similar estimate for Britain. PKK has also earning money from commercial activities and donations.

IBDA-C does not have many followers, despite the organization’s high profile. Many of its actions are carried out for the sole purpose of enhancing its image as a power to be reckoned with. So, IBDA-C hasn’t got a big budget. But it can provide money from its sympathizers especially in Europe. It has also incomes from such as oblation skins income (in Religion Kurban Bayram etc.),

DHKP-C has many finance sources with different ways. For instances, seizing and theft, membership free to society, ransom, extortion, publications incomes, commercial activities, forgery, human trade, narcotic smuggling.

E) Have any terrorist groups in your country benefited from foreign support? Any the evidence of linkages to international terrorist networks?

PKK received many supports from many countries. 1979–1999, PKK has taken support from Syria strongly. After the undeclared war between Turkey and Syria (1999), Syria placed restrictions on PKK activities on its soil. Turkey is expecting positive developments in its cooperation with Syria in the long term. After 2001, Syria and Turkey agreed to fight against PKK together in their lands.

Support from Iran for PKK is cut when the PKK forces of Iran (PEJAK) attacked the Iranian forces. Iran has put PKK names in terrorist organization list. After 2001, Iran and Turkey collaborated against PKK forces. Support from Greece, During the Cold War period was strong. Greece supplied to PKK, training camps and rebels.

Support from Soviet Union, According to one speculation, Abdullah Öcalan was trained in Soviet Union. Now, after 2001, Russia hasn’t put PKK’s name as a terrorist organization in the list of terrorist groups yet.

Support from U.K, there has been T.V. broadcasting for five years. Until, its license was revoked by the regulators Independent Television Commission (ITC) in 1999 due to a breach of ITC guidelines and perceived pro-PKK bias. In December 2008, U.K. detained some members of PKK and seized assets of PKK’s man in Britain, Selman Bozkur. Support from various E.U. States, They have given the permission to use their broadcasting frequency by PKK such as MEDYA TV(Belgium), ROJ TV(Denmark), etc.

On the other hand, some of PKK leaders lived and moved freely such as Hıdır Yalçın, Rıza Altun, Zübeyir Aydar, and Ali Haydar Kaytan in Europe Countries. Even they were wanted by Interpol, they could have gone move freely.

According to some debates (coming from especially “Turkish Think Thanks” and American Journalist Seymour Hersh), in 2007, was claimed that U.S. supported PJAK which knows Iran’s PKK forces, to use it against Iran’s Army at the north-western Iran. It was clandestine war.

IBDA-C has many supports in Europe. Especially in Germany, the organization has almost 600 supporters. It has also some supporters in Western Europe Countries. Even IBDA-C and Al-Qaida have similar aims and structures there is no real evidence on cooperation between them.

F) What kind of counterterrorism measures has the national government adopted? Have they changed over time? Why?

Before giving information about counterterrorism measures of Turkey, it must be explained and identified “Turkish National Police and Counter-Terrorism Structure”.

In Turkey, counterterrorism activities are overseen by the Ministry of Interior. Under the Ministry of Interior, there are two major entities that responsible for anti-terrorism tasks: “Turkish National Police” and “gendarmerie”. Police are responsible for urban areas and gendarmerie is responsible for rural areas. There is also the National Intelligence Agency (MIT – Milli İstihbarat Teşkilatı) which has some authorities along with Intelligence Service within Turkish National Police (TNP).

About counter-terrorism, there are three departments in TNP which are responsible for responding the terrorism. They are mainly Intelligence Department, Special Operations Department and Anti-Terrorism Department. These departments are organized based on two structures. First unit is the headquarters within TNP in Ankara. Second structure is the counterpart divisions in cities and districts.

Counter Terrorism Strategies in Turkey

Turkey has used a variety innovative approach to combat terrorism. “Diplomacy” and “Addressing the cause of terrorism” are most important elements of counter-terrorism strategies in Turkey.

Diplomacy

Turkish diplomacy about counter-terrorism case mostly has bilateral relations. On Syria case against the leader of PKK, Abdullah Öcalan’s existence in there, Turkey put into practiced a good example of efficient diplomacy towards Syria.

In fact, one of the major challenges for the Turkish government is to live up to the growing demand for the leadership form and maintain an active international coalition. Turkey suffers from lack of support and sensitivity even from NATO members such as Belgium. For instance, Belgium court refused to extradite Fehriye Erdal, a member of DHKP-C terrorist organization and one of the individuals who assassinated Özdemir Sabancı, was prominent businessman in Turkey.

Addressing the Cause of Terrorism

Turkey has also sought to undermine the sources of terrorism. Especially, it has some problems in southeast part of Turkey. To gain additional support, PKK has been exaggerating the so-called discrimination against the Kurdish population and prohibition of Kurdish language in there.

As a response concerning these allegations, Turkish Parliament enacted a “recognizant law for Kurdish language”. At the same time, Southeast Anatolia Project (GAP) was started by government and improved to seek the economics and social conditions in the region. Additionally, state provided funds for building some new recreation area, expanding employment opportunities etc.

Terrorist Organizations

PKK is listed as a terrorist organization by a number of states and organizations, including the United States, NATO and the European Union. It is listed as one of the 12 active terrorist organizations in Turkey according to “Counter Terrorism and Operations Department of Turkish Police” in 2007. Turkey labeled the organization as an ethnic secessionist organization that uses terrorism and the threat of force against both civilian and military targets for the purpose of achieving its political goal.

After 2001, there were many counter-terrorist measures, implemented by Turkey Government. In 2003, Turkish government came up with a series of suggestions and policies to deal the final blow to “PKK terrorism”, as it officially known.

The parliament enacted the “Reinstatement into Society Law” (Topluma Kazandırma Yasası) which was similar to the juridical mechanism of “plea bargaining” in that members of terrorist organizations would receive amnesty or a reduction in sentence in exchange for becoming state witnesses.

Turkey’s state has been in a big struggle against the IBDA-C. After, 11 September 2001, IBDA-C has been encountering many events in the “Turkish Politics Life”. So, Turkey applied many counter-terrorism applications. Salih İzzet Erdiş who was known leader, was captured at 1998 and sentenced to death in 2001. Then Erdiş’s death sentence was later changed when Ankara abolished the death penalty in August 2002. In March 2004, when a Turkish court emitted Erdiş a 20-year prison sentence for using handmade explosives and weapons in a riot against authorities at Metris Prison.

Turkey has also had big problem with DHKP-C, during the 2000s years. After 11 September 2001, DHKP-C has added suicide bombings to its operations in 2001 against Turkish Police both in January and September. DHKP/C female suicide bomber Şengül Akkurt’s explosive belt detonated by accident on May 20, 2003 in Ankara, in a restroom, while she was preparing for an action. On 24 July 2004, Semiran Polat of DHKP-C’s member has exploded bomb on a bus in Istanbul and three people have died in there. On July 1, 2005, Eyüp Beyaz of DHKP-C’s member was killed in Ankara. He attempted to suicide bombing attack in front of the Ministry of Justice.

G) Which counterterrorism worked best? What did not work? Why?

There have been many good-counterterrorism measures, implemented by Turkey government. Some of them worked efficiently and also some of them didn’t work effectively.

First of all, on the one hand after applying “Reinstatement into Society Law” in 2003, the government of Turkey got advantages against PKK, many terrorists who were in the mountains and other countries (especially Iraq and Iran borders) surrendered to Turkish Police, Gendarmerie and Army.

On the other hand Turkish Army has attacked PKK targets in Turkey-Iraq Border in Northern Iraq Region twice in 2007 and 2008. So, a lot of bases of PKK in Northern Iraq, has been destroyed.

Secondly, Turkish Police has started to serious struggle against IBDA-C members and organization itself. The Capturing of Erdiş, who was leader of IBDA-C, strokes the organizations structure and ability of action. In the latest period, DHKP-C couldn’t have done prominent action in Turkey.

Thirdly, Turkish Police has pursued big struggle against the members of DHKP-C in recent years. A lot of members of DHKP-C have been arrested by the Turkish Police. Since 2001, terrorism has been come the most important subject in the world by the USA, Turkey was also improved their counterterrorism skills against the terrorism.

H) To what extend has international cooperation facilitated the fight against terrorism in your country? Has the European Union made any contributions?

Turkey and Europe Union have bilateral relations against international terrorism. They improved operational engagement and exchange of intelligence evidence. According to “Turkey-EU Strategic Partnership 2007/2008 Report” They enhanced co-operation on the terrorist threat posed by PKK/KONGRA-GEL, particularly it activities in EU area, including terrorist financing and propaganda, in accordance with UNSCRs 1373, 1624 and 1566. They have also enhanced cooperation on the threat from Al-Qaida and other associated extremist groups. Turkey and Europe Union improved mutual understanding of crime and the harm both Turkey and EU.

On the other hand, Turkey’s long effort to combat terrorism has produced many benefits for itself. Additionally, these benefits could be transferred to international community easily.

Firstly, Turkish law enforcement agencies have gathered intelligence wide variety of groups and their ideological and tactical characteristics. Turkey, by sharing this knowledge can be invaluable of source of information for on-going and future terrorism-related investigations.

Secondly, Turkish law enforcement agencies, particularly TNP, have shared this knowledge and experience by training other law enforcement agencies in the region and around the world. More importantly, Turkey could be a bridge for capacity building, transforming global concerns into strategic partnership with a cooperative approach.

SOURCES

Books and Articles

BARNHARDT, Stephan R. (2002), New International Terrorism and Violence Guide, (Manchester: Trafford Publishing)

DENISE, Natalie (2005), Kurds and the state, (New York: Syracuse University Press)

FERHAD, İbrahim, GÜLİSTAN, Gürbey (2000). The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey: Obstacles and Chances for Peace and Democracy. (New York, St Martin’s Press)

KATZMAN, Kenneth (1998-08-27). “Terrorism: Middle Eastern Groups and State Sponsors, 1998 August 27,“. GlobalSecurity.org.

“Kongra-Gel, KADEK, PKK“. Global Security. Retrieved on 2005–04–01.

OLSON, Robert W. (1996), The Kurdish Nationalist Movement in the 1990s: Its Impact on Turkey and the Middle East, (Kentucky: University Pres of Kentucky)

ORTTUNG, Robert W., MAKARYCHEV, Andrey(2006), National Counter-Terrorism Strategies(Belgium: IOS Press)

“The Workers’ Party of Kurdistan (PKK)“, Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved on 2008–10–09.

“Terrorism, financing of its activities“, Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (Retrieved on 2008–07–10)

Internet Sources

Turkey EU Strategic Partnership 2007-2008 (2008), http://www.fco.gov.uk/resources/en/news/2007/10/fco_not_251007_turkukstratpart

The Islamic Great Eastern Raiders-Front(IBDA-C),

http://fas.org/irp/world/para/ibda-c.htm

Türkiye’de Faaliyetlerine Devam Eden Başlıca Terör Örgütleri, http://www.egm.gov.tr/temuh/terorgrup1.html

Pike, John (2004–05–21). “Revolutionary People’s Liberation Party/Front (DHKP/C)”. Federation of American Scientists. http://fas.org/irp/world/para/dev_sol.htm.

Retrieved on 2009–01–07.

Kurdistan Worker’s Party(PKK),

http://fas.org/irp/world/para/pkk.htm

Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, “Foreign Terrorist Organizations”. U.S. Department of State http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/fs/08/103392.htm

Retrieved on 2009–01–07.

Prepared by,

İskender Karakaya,

Erasmus Exchange Program MA Student,

No: 89488475